Kinds of Sources for Taxonomic Evidence
(1) morphology, anatomy (follow the links), embryology
(2) cytology, palynology, paleobotany, ecology
(3) pollination biology
(4) chemosystematics, genetic sequencing data
Morphology
review of plant morphology
floral and vegetative morphology
reproductive structures
John Lindley (1799-1865)
The vegetable kingdom (1846)
George H.M. Lawrence (1919-1978)
Taxonomy of vascular plants (1951)
Albert E. Radford et al.
Vascular plant systematics (1974) - see Classified glossary from Vascular Plant Taxonomy
gross morphological features
Arthur J. Eames (1881-1969)
- Bell, A.D. 1991. Plant form. An illustrated guide to flowering plant morphology. Oxford.
- Eames, A.J. 1961. Morphology of the angiosperms. New York.
- Sporne, K.R. 1975. The morphology of angiosperms: The structure and evolution of flowering plants. New York.
comparative plant anatomy
review of plant anatomy in two parts
Charles R. Metcalfe (1904-1991)
Laurence Chalk (1895-1979)
Anatomy of the dicotyledons (1979-1983)
Anatomy of the monocotyledons (1960-1982)
- Esau, K. 1965. Plant anatomy, ed. 2. New York.
- Mauseth, J.D. 1988. Plant anatomy. Menlo Park.
- Rudall, P. 1992. Anatomy of flowering plants. An introduction to structure and development, ed. 2. Cambridge.
- Weberling, F. 1989. Morphology of flowers and inflorescences, trans. by R.K. Pankhurst. Cambridge.
evolutionary trends in secondary xylem
Irwin W. Bailey (1884-1967)
tracheids (right) to vessels
sieve-element plastids
Richard Eyde (1928-1990)
vestigial or modified parts
vascularization
stomatal types
Sherwin Carlquist (1930- )
conservative characters
adaptation and function
evolutionary adaptation to environmental stress
island biogeography and specialization
- Carlquist, S. 1974. Island biology. New York.
- --. 1975. Ecological strategies of xylem evolution. Berkeley
- --. 1988. Comparative wood anatomy. Berlin.
embryology
microsporogensis and megasporogensis gametophytes
fertilization
endosperm
embryo
seed coats"double fertilization"
- Maheshwari, P. 1950. An introduction to the embryology of angiosperms. New York.
- Davis, G.L. 1966. Systematic embryology of the angiosperms. New York.
- Johri, B.M. (ed.). 1984. Embryology of angiosperms. Berlin.
- --, K.B. Ambegaokar, & P.S. Srivastava. 1992. Comparative embryology of angiosperms. 2 vols. Berlin.
- Kapil, R.N. & A.K. Bhatnagar. 1991. Embryological evidence in angiosperm classification and phylogeny. Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 113: 309-338.
- Raghavan, V. 1986. Embryogenesis in angiosperms: A developmental and experimental study. Cambridge.v
- Takhtajan, A.L. (ed.). 1985-1991. Sravnitel'naia anatomiia semian. 3 vols. (to date). St. Petersburg.
a process of double fertilization first evolved in a common ancestor to the gnetophytes and the angiosperms. The second fertilization product was diploid and yielded a supernumerary embryo. Subsequent evolution led to the establishment of an embryo-nourishing triploid endosperm. Work done by William (Ned) Friedman
Ephedra
earliest flowering plants displayed an ab initio cellular pattern of endosperm development and not free nuclear as previously assumed.embryological features common in angiosperms
- Friedman, W.E. 1990a. Double fertilization in Ephedra, a non-flowering seed plant: Its bearing on the origin of angiosperms. Science 247: 951-954.
- --. 1990b. Sexual reproduction in Ephedra nevadensis (Ephedraceae): Further evidence of double fertilization in a nonflowering seed plant. Amer. J. Bot. 77: 1582-1598.
- --. 1992a. Double fertilization in nonflowering seed plants and its relevance to the origin of flowering plants. Intern. Rev. Cytol. 140: 319-355.
- --. 1992b. Evidence of a pre-angiosperm origin of endosperm: Implications for the evolution of flowering plants. Science 255: 336-339.v
- --. 1993. The evolutionary history of the seed plant male gametophyte. Trends Ecol. Evol. 8: 15-21.
- --. 1994. The evolution of embryogeny in seed plants and the developmental origin and early history of endos-perm. Amer. J. Bot. 81: 1468-1486.
Cytotaxonomy
- 1. four microsporangia
- 2. two-celled pollen grains
- 3. eight-nucleate embryo sac
- 4. nuclear endosperm
cytological evidence
chromosome number - need a review?
chromosome shape and size
stages of mitosis and meiosis - a pictorial review
cytogenetics
G. Ledyard Stebbins (1906- )haploid, diploid, tetraploid, octoploid
- Stebbins, G.L. 1971. Chromosomal evolution in higher plants. Boston.
Haplopappus
Poa
Eriogonum
polyploids, polyploidy
aneuploids, aneuploidy
homoploids, homoploidy
sporophytic (n) number
somatic (2n) number
base number (x)
Pinus n= 12
Aster (s.l.) x= 4, 5, 8, 9
Aster (s.s.) x= 9
Machaeranthera x= 4 (see right)
Virgulus x= 5
Symphyotrichum x= 8
Brassica n= 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
autoploid: a polyploid organism that arose by a multiplication of one basic set of chromosomes
autoploids, autopolyploidy
alloploid: a polyploid organism that arose by the combination of genetically distinct chromosome sets
alloploids, allopolyploidy
autotetraploid
amphidiploid, amphidiploidy
genomes
chromosome compliments
A x= 10
AA (2n= 20) x AA (2n= 20)
doubling of same genomic chromosomes results in an autotetraploid, an autopolyploid condition
AA (2n= 20) doubled to AAAA (2n= 40) or 4x= 40
AA (2n= 20) x BB (2n= 20)
AB (2n= 20), usually sterile, doubled to AABB (2n= 40 or 4x= 40), fully fertile doubling of amphidiploid genomic chromosomes resulting in an autoalloploidy
Agave (right), Yucca n= 30
five large and 25 small chromosomes
gross morphology vs. chromosome number
Centaurium namophilum var. nevadense
n= 17 and C. exaltatum n= 40
Ultrastructure
electron microscopy
transmission electron microscope (TEM)
scanning electron microscope (SEM)
H.-Dietmar BehnkePalynology
- Behnke & W. Barthlott. 1983. "New evidence from the ultrastructural and micromorphological fields in angiosperm classification." Nordic J. Bot. 3: 43-66.
palynologists
pollen and spores
pollen wall structure, polarity, symmetry, shape and size
James W. Walker (1943- )
monosulcate: cycads, ferns, conifers, primitive dicotyledons and most monocotyledons
germinal furrow
aperture
tricolpate: advanced dicotyledons
a multitude of pollen typesPaleobotany - see "The value of fossil collecitons" by Warren D. Allmon and Terry Pulton
- Erdtman, G. 1969. Handbook of palynology: Morphology-taxonomy-ecology: An introduction to the study of pollen grains and spores. New York.
- Nair, P.K.K. 1970. Pollen morphology of angiosperms: An historical and phylogenetic study. Lucknow.
- Nowicke, J. 1979. Pollen morphology: The potential influence in higher order systematics. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 66: 633-700.
- Nilsson, S. & J. Praglowski (eds.). 1992. Erdtman's Handbook of palynology, ed. 2. Copenhagen.
- Shivanna, K.R. & B.M. Johri. 1985. The angiosperm pollen: Structure and function. New Dehli.
- Skvarla, J.J., J.R. Rowley & W.F. Chissoe. 1988. Adaptability of scanning electron microscopy to studies of pollen morphology. Aliso 12: 119-175.
microfossils, macrofossils
first land plants belong to Bryophyta
late Ordovician possibly 450-470 mybp during a period of extensive glaciation and mass extinction
evolved from a charophycean ancestry and most closely resembled thalloid liverworts
Todd J. Cooke recently demonstrated that the Charales (Chara, Nitella) are in fact land plant that never formed an embryo and thus these genera are not themselves the origin of land plants
first vascular plants - first appeared in the upper Silurian about 430 mybp (originally found in Australia, now known from Bolivia), possibly of a bryophyte origin
lacked roots and leaves but had a symbiotic association (mycorrhizal) with fungiRhyniophyta - one of the rhynie plants from Scotland - see this site on microspores
- Graham, L.E. 1993. Origin of land plants. New York
- --. 1996. Green algae to land plants: An evolutionary transition. J. Pl. Res. 109: 241-251.
- --, C. Delwiche & B.D. Misler. 1991. Phylogenetic connection between the "green algaae" and the "bryophytes". Advances Bryol. 4: 213-244.
- Kranz, H.D., D. Miks, M.-L. Siegler, I. Capesius, W. Sensen & V.A.R. Huss. 1995. The origin of land plants: Phylogenetic relationships among charophytes, bryophytes, and vascular plants inferred from complete small-subunit ribosomal RNA gene sequences. J. Molec. Evol. 41: 74-84.
- Manhart, J.R. 1994. Phylogenetic analysis of green plant rbcL sequences. Molec. Phylogenetics Evol. 3: 114-127.
- Mishler, B.D., L.A. Lewis, M.A. Buchheim, K.S. Renzaglia, D.J. Garbary, C.F. Delwiche, F.W. Zechman, T.S. Kantz & R.L. Chapman. 1994. Phylogenetic relationships of the "green algae" and "bryophytes". Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 81: 451-483.
Zosterophyllophyta
Trimerophytophyta
all other major divisions still extant
Devonian
major extinction events mark the boundaries of most of the major geologic epochs, e.g., end of the Paleozoic (some 245 mybp) and the Cretaceous (some 65 mybp)
Raup & Sepkoski suggest that major extinction events are cyclic occurring about ever 26 my.DNA from Miocene Taxodium, Magnolia, Celtis and Ulmus
- Alvarez, L.W., W. Alvarez, F. Asaro & H.V. Michel. 1980. Extraterrestrial cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction. Science 208: 1095-1108.
- Raup, D.M. & G.E. Boyajian. 1988. Patterns of generic extinction in the fossil record. Paleobiology 14: 109-125.
- -- & J.J. Sepkoski. 1984. Periodicity of extinction in the geologic past. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 81: 801-805.
- ----. 1988. Testing for periodicity of extinction. Science 241: 94-96.
- Stanley, S.M. & X. Yang. 1994. A double mass extinction at the end of the Paleozoic Era. Science 266: 1340-1344.
some question if the sample DNA is bacterial or truly from the named organismEcology
- Austin, J.J., A.B. Smith & R.H. Thomas. 1997. Palaeontology in a molecular world: The search for authentic ancient DNA. Trends Ecol. Evol. 12: 303-306.
- Giannasi, D.E. & K.J. Niklas. 1977. Flavonoid and other chemical constituents of fossil Miocene Celtis and Ulmus (Succor Creek Flora). Science 197: 765-767.
- Golenberg, E.M., D.E. Giannasi, M.E. Clegg, C.J. Smiley, M. Durbin, D. Henderson & G. Zirawski. 1990. Chloroplast DNA sequence from a Miocene Magnolia species. Nature 344: 656-658.
- Sidow, A., A.C. Wilson & S. Pääbo. 1991. Bacterial DNA in Clarkia fossils. Trans. Philos. Soc. London, ser. B, 333: 429-433.
- Soltis, P.S., D.E. Soltis & C.J. Smiley. 1992. An rbcL sequence from a Miocene Taxodium (bald cypress). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 89: 449-451.
Harvey M. Hall (1874-1932)
Jens Clausen, David D. Keck, William Hiesey
"Experimental studies on the nature of species" In four parts published by Carnegie Institution from 1940-1958
genetic vs. environmental established variation
Achillea lanulosa - see also the introductory remarks - time to do that Germanadaptation - see some recent abstracts and review the PBIO 100 notes
- Clausen, J. 1951. Stages in the evolution of plant species. Ithaca.
ecotypic variation
- Grant, V. 1963. The origin of adaptations. New York
edaphic (soil) specialization
effect of habitat on hybridization
plant-herbivore interactions
seed-dispersal mechanisms
seedling establishment
function of plant structure
reproductive isolating mechanisms
edaphic
Arthur R. Kruckeberg (1920- )
serpentine
local speciation and endemism
paleoclimates
a useful but dated glossary of terms