If you are interested in teaching and/or doing research at the college/university level in biology, a Ph.D. in a specialized area of biology is required. In addition, many research positions in industry, particularly directing a research project, require a Ph.D. A Ph.D. would be of benefit in some other (non-research) positions in industry as well (see information on biotech/business). Ph.D.-level biological scientists can also fill important needs in the areas of public policy, law, and teaching at other levels (i.e., informal science education, junior-college teaching, etc.). Please also see information on these related areas in this booklet if you are interested.
Most Ph.D. programs in the biological sciences provide a tuition waiver and pay stipends to cover living expenses to enrolled students. Completing a Ph.D. usually takes about five years, most of which is spent performing research. Most programs begin with a year of course work, during which a research lab is identified through a series of research rotations. Teaching assistantships are often a part of the training. Generally, in addition to completing a Ph.D., most Ph.D. biological scientists spend several years (2-4) as post-doctoral fellows, performing additional research, often to specialize further in their research area before seeking a faculty position or another job. It is no longer common or necessary for those who plan to get a Ph.D. first to complete a Master's degree.
The Biology Department recommends that those interested in entering Ph.D. programs consult with their Biology Faculty advisors for recommendations about courses that will best prepare them. To some extent, the courses selected will depend on the area of biology that the student finds particularly interesting and in which she/he plans to specialize (see below), but all students interested in pursuing Ph.D. studies should take the core sequence, Biol 296A/297A/3051. A rigorous and broad program of biology courses (rather than taking only the minimum courses required to complete the major) is recommended. To obtain a comprehensive view of many modern techniques used by biologists in a large number of areas of specialization, Biol 334, Biol 337, Biol 437, and Biology 451 are suggested, although some specialty areas will emphasize other programs of study. Students also should get involved in research as early as possible; participation in Biol 500 during the junior and senior years is highly recommended. Summer research opportunities are particularly valuable for students interested in entering Ph.D. programs. Such opportunities exist on campus (see section on research opportunities, Page 7) and at other universities. Information on research opportunities at other universities is being compiled in the Natural Science Learning Center. Participation in a summer research program at a university where a graduate program of potential interest is located can be particularly valuable. These summer programs often serve as recruiting tools for graduate programs. Students known to the faculty of the program through successful participation in their institution's summer research programs have a decided advantage in admissions.
Most graduate programs look very favorably upon research experience gained through working for 1-2 years as a research assistant (technician) after graduation. Those who take "time off" to work in lab often have the advantage of more advanced skills, greater familiarity with how research problems are approached, and greater focus upon entering graduate school. This type of experience can be invaluable in determining whether pursuing Ph.D. studies is an appropriate path for an individual.
Information on graduate programs in biology can be found in Peterson's Guide to Graduate Study. The Guide for Biology and Agriculture can be found in the Biology Library. Peterson's Guides in all areas are in Olin Library. Peterson's Guide is available via the internet (http://www.petersons.com/graduate/). Peterson's Guide lists the faculty associated with the various graduate programs. Identifying faculty associated with a program is the first step to evaluating the suitability of the program. Often reading recent published work of faculty in a program of potential interest is the best way to evaluate whether a program might be appropriate. An additional resource for information on graduate study is the Career Library, or "Cell and Molecular Biology Online," (http://www.cellbio.com/).
"1989 by Sidney Harris-"Einstein Simplified," Rutgers Univ. Press.
An understanding of the molecules that compose the cell - their structure, function, and interactions - is the core of our efforts in biochemistry. Like all of the other subdisciplines, the intellectual possibilities in this area have expanded rapidly with new molecular tools. Students interested in graduate study in biochemistry are in most cases best served by completing either the biology special major in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (see Page 3) or the chemistry major with concentration in Biochemistry. These programs require that the student take physical chemistry (Chem 421, and 422 or 424) and a selection of upper-level biology and chemistry classes. A good grounding in genetics, cell and molecular biology is also advised; this preparation can be obtained by taking Bio 3051, 334 and 434. Research experience is essential and should be sought as early as practical.
There are a number of excellent graduate programs throughout the country;
again, reading the literature as well as university materials can help you
identify programs with faculty members doing work of interest to you.
A biomathematician or biophysicist utilizes physical and/or mathematical approaches to help solve biological and biomedical problems. A biophysicist may for example use x-ray crystallography to study protein structure, and a biomathematician may develop mathematical models to explain electrical activity in the heart.
Common to all of these fields is the application of techniques traditionally employed by physicists or mathematicians. A biophysicist may develop and use complex instrumentation or computer software, or may apply a knowledge of physical laws to biological problems. Examples include the design of better brain scanners, the development of computer programs to analyze and compare DNA sequences, or the modeling of cell motility based on the laws of mechanics. A biomathematician employs rigorous mathematical analysis in biological problems. Examples here include the development of mathematical models to describe changes in population structure, or the use of statistics to analyze complicated quantitative data resulting from biological experiments.
For graduate work in these fields, prospective students should look beyond program names. Some universities offer specific graduate programs entitled Biophysics or Biomathematics. Other universities often have researchers working in the same fields, but they may be part of a larger department such as biology, physics or engineering. Guidance in selecting appropriate schools can come from reading some of the primary scientific literature in the field to identify prospective graduate mentors, and also by consulting with local experts. A good place to start on campus is with faculty members in the areas mentioned above.
Students interested in these fields should take course work in mathematics and physics beyond that required for the biology major. To get a head start, it may be advisable to take Physics 117A/118A during the summer after the freshman year. Recommended courses beyond those required for the biology major are Math 1201 (C programming), 233 (multivariable calculus), 309 (matrix algebra) and 320 (probability and statistics). The preceding plus Math 318 and one other upper level elective course in math are sufficient for a math minor. Other courses of particular interest in math include Math 217 (differential equations) and Math 312 (dynamical systems).
For students with an interest in biophysics, 17 units of physics are sufficient for a minor. Physics courses that should be considered are Phys 217, 218 (quantum physics), and Phys 421, 422 or in Electrical Engineering EE 314M (electromagnetism). For details on the Biomedical Physics Minor, see page 4. Also of interest in Electrical Engineering is EE 280 (electrical networks). Students interested in biomechanics should consider Mechanical Engineering ME 231, 232, 241, 370 and Phys 314. For those interested in biomathematics, courses in Systems Science and Mathematics may be relevant, such as SSM 144, 202, 351A. For those with interests in biomedical imaging, relevant courses include SSM 147, EE 455, 468A and Phys 316.
In addition, summer research opportunities or Bio 200/500 experiences should be sought with faculty at the Institute for Biomedical Computing, in the Bio-engineering program (see also Bio-engineering in this brochure), the Department of Physics, and the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics. Note that Hughes Fellowships are available on a competitive basis to support summer work in this area. See Professor Clifford Will (x5-6250) in Physics for further information on the WU/HHMI program.
For additional information about biophysics, students may wish to contact the Biophysical Society. Besides providing answers to specific questions and helping students make contacts with professionals in the field, the society also publishes a brochure entitled "Careers in Biophysics". For information, contact Emily M. Gray, Executive Director Biophysical Society, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814; phone 301-530-7114. A web site for biophysics (http://www.faseb.org/biophys) contains information about the Biophysical Society and has links to abstracts from the Biophysical Journal, as well as a listing of biophysics graduate programs with links to the home pages for these programs. A separate web site exists for biomathematics: http://www.gdb.org/Dan/mathbio/intro.html
For those interested in Graduate Programs in Developmental Biology, the core sequence (296A/297A/3051), Bio 337 (The Cell Nucleus), Bio 334 (Cell Biology), Bio 437 (DNA Manipulation) and Bio 451 (Biochemistry) are highly recommended to provide sufficient background in the areas of biology upon which the student will need to draw. There are two courses, Bio 312 (Vertebrate Development) and Bio 319 (Molecular Mechanisms of Development), that focus on the field of development. While there is some overlap of material covered in these two courses, the overlap is not extensive, and a student interested in this area would benefit from taking both courses. Also of interest is Bio 3041, which will give exposure to development of plants.
For help in finding an appropriate graduate program, students can consult faculty members with interests in Developmental Biology (see faculty listings of the Division of Biology and Biomedical Science). If a student has an interest in a particular area of development, one effective method of finding appropriate programs is to determine the graduate program affiliations of the prominent researchers in the area, using research papers to identify their university affiliations and catalogs or Peterson's guide to identify programs available at that university. Other faculty participating in the program can be identified through Peterson's guide or by writing to the program for information. The range of interests of the faculty in the program is often the key factor in identifying which programs are the best match for the individual. Below, some programs that are noted for developmental biology research opportunities are listed. However, there are many other programs where students would find excellent research opportunities in this area. Many combined programs in cell and molecular biology have significant numbers of faculty with interests in developmental biology; in many cases, developmental biology is not listed in the program title (as seen below).
Graduate study in this area combines population genetics, phylogenetics and ecological perspectives to study the origins and maintenance of biodiversity. It is a diverse and synthetic area that can combine field studies with molecular biology and mathematics to gain an understanding of evolutionary history and environmental biology. Population genetic studies ask: "What kinds of genetic variation occur in natural populations? How do population genetic processes lead to the evolution of new species and adaptation? How does population structure affect rates of speciation and adaptive evolution and which breeding strategies are optimal for conserving genetic variation to enhance the survival of endangered species?" Studies of phylogeny ask "What are the evolutionary relationships of different plant and animal species? How do historically acquired developmental and functional constraints channel morphological and ecological evolution in different lineages and what kinds of developmental processes underlie the evolutionary diversification of different plant and animal groups?" Ecological experiments provide crucial information on how organisms meet environmental challenges: "At which stages of the life cycle is mortality most severe and how do different species interact to establish ecological communities?"
Graduate study in evolutionary and population biology prepares students for careers in ecology, evolutionary biology, systematics, and in the biological aspects of environmental and conservation sciences, either in academic institutions, in governmental agencies such as U.S. Fish and Wildlife, or in private conservation agencies such as the Nature Conservancy or World Wildlife. Students interested in graduate study in this area should include Bio 3501, (Evolution), Bio 419 (Ecology) and Bio 4181 (Population Genetics) in their major. Bio 4182 (Macroevolution), Bio 4183 (Molecular Evolution), and Bio 4202 (Evolutionary Genetics) offer excellent preparation for graduate-level study in these areas. Students should take Bio 422 (Applied Biostatistics) or Math 320 (Elementary Probability and Statistics) for important background in statistics. Bio 437 (Lab on DNA Manipulation) will be useful in many cases. Opportunities for research experience, either during the academic year or in the summer, should be sought. Information on summer field opportunities that come to the Biology Department can be found in the Natural Sciences Learning Center.
With the advent of gene cloning and the undertaking of the Human Genome Project, the field of genetics is changing rapidly. Geneticists are actively involved in studying patterns of development, mechanisms of inheritance, the basis of human genetic disease, and the nature of inherited behaviors. Geneticists work in medical centers, assist in forensic cases, teach and do research in universities, colleges, and institutes, and participate in the biotechnology industry. Genetic analysis, and potentially genetic therapy, are becoming increasingly important in health care, and are leading toward a paradigm shift in the way we think about the practice of medicine.
The biology major provides good preparation for work towards a Ph.D in genetics. Student with interests in this area should be sure to include Bio 437 (Lab in DNA Manipulation) in their program in addition to Bio 297A/Bio 3051. Depending on the particular area of interest, Bio 3191 (Molecular Mechanisms of Development), Bio 334 (Cell Biology), Bio 4181 (Population Genetics), Bio 4183 (Molecular Evolution) and Bio 434 (The Cell Nucleus) also should be considered. Advanced courses available on the Medical School Campus include Bio 5491, Advanced Genetics (requires graduate standing or permission of the instructor) and Bio 5011, Ethics and Research (a one-unit course open to undergraduates). Certainly a student interested in graduate school in this area will want to become involved in research in a relevant lab using Bio 500 or a summer research opportunity.
Many universities offer strong graduate programs in genetics. Genome Centers that function as part of the NIH/DOE-funded Human Genome Project are located at Baylor College of Medicine, University of California at Berkeley (campus and Lawrence Berkeley Lab), Salk Institute, Stanford University, University of Iowa, University of Michigan, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, University of Utah, Washington University in St. Louis, and Whitehead Institute at MIT. Further information on careers in genetics can be obtained by writing to The Genetics Society of America, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814-3998, or The American Society of Human Genetics at the same address.
Neurosciences (NS) is a diverse and fascinating field; it includes Behavioral NS, Cellular NS, Developmental NS, Molecular NS, and Systems NS. The annual meeting of the Society for Neurosciences in the USA attracts more than 20,000 participants. In the Biology Department, Professor Paul Stein studies the neural mechanisms of the turtle's motor behavior, and Professor Nobuo Suga studies the neural mechanisms of the bat's auditory behavior.
There are many courses at Washington University in NS offered on the Main Campus by the Biology Department and the Psychology Department in Arts and Sciences. On the Medical Campus, the Neurosciences Program in the Division of Biology and Biological Sciences offers many graduate courses in NS. The Neuroscience Program at Washington University is one of the top graduate programs for doctoral training in NS (the Washington University NS program brochure is located at the website http://thalamus.wustl.edu/program/). In addition, the Department of Philosophy offers a doctoral program in Philosophy, Neuroscience, and Psychology (PNP).
An undergraduate Biology major is excellent background for graduate study in NS. In addition, a minor or major in Psychology is helpful for those with interests in Behavioral NS.
(A) Courses offered in the Department of Biology.
The following courses for general background should be taken by all students with interests in NS:
At least one, preferably two, and hopefully all three of the following basic courses should be taken by students with interests in NS.
At least two semesters of Independent Work (Bio 500) should be taken by any student interested in doctoral studies in NS. Students with strong interests in Molecular, Cellular, and/or Developmental NS should also consider the following courses.
Students with strong interests in Systems NS also should consider Biol.
4011, Comparative Vertebrate Physiology. Students with special interests
in the auditory system may consider this somewhat specialized course: Biol.
5811 Neural Basis of Acoustic Communication.
(B) Courses offered in the Department of Psychology.
Students should discuss coursework in the Psychology Department with a faculty member in the Department of Psychology. The basic courses are Psych. 330, Sensation and Perception; Psych. 340, Biological Psychology; and Psych. 360, Cognitive Psychology.
Somewhat specialized courses offered are Psych. 4001, Introduction to Neuropsychology; Psych. 404, Neuroscience (same as Occupational Therapy 303); Psych. 4041, Historical Roots of Neuropsychology and the Brain Sciences; Psych. 4042, Behavioral Neuroscience I (same as Occupational Therapy 3041); Psych. 4043, Behavioral Neuroscience II (same as Occupational Therapy 305); Psych. 4081, Perception, Thought, and Action; Psych. 431, Hearing (same as Speech and Hearing 414); Psych. 439, Vision (same as Biol. 5661); Psych. 4411, Topics in Cognitive Neuroscience (same as Biol. 5601); Psych. 4511, Cognitive Development and its Relation to Maturation of the Brain.
(C) Courses offered on the Medical School Campus.
Most courses offered by the Neuroscience Graduate Program are designed for graduate students and require considerable reading in the research literature. Most of these courses are best taken in graduate school after the biology major is completed.
The following specialized courses form the core coursework for first-year graduate students in the Neuroscience Doctoral Program: Biol. 5404, Molecular Neurobiology; Biol. 5651, Neural Systems; Biol. 5562, Principles of Neural Development; Biol. 5571, Cellular Neurobiology. {The Neuroscience course for medical students is Biol. 554: Neural Sciences.}
Other highly specialized courses offered are best taken after the first year of graduate school is completed. These include: Biol. 5553, Developmental Neurobiology Journal Lab; Biol. 567, Advanced Tutorial in Neural Sciences; Biol. 5681, Pathogenesis of Neurologic Diseases; Biol. 5242, Systems Physiology Tutorial; Biol. 5502, Molecular Aspects of Vision; Biol. 5503, Molecular Pathobiology of Visual Disorders; Biol. 5522, Memory; Biol. 5601, Topics in Cognitive Neuroscience; Biol. 5641, Computational Neuroscience.
(D) Graduate schools with Neuroscience Programs.
Almost all universities have neuroscientists as members of their faculty; many universities have a neuroscience program, especially those with medical schools. Washington University has one of the strongest Neuroscience programs in the country and the world. The research produced by the Washington University faculty was recently ranked #1 in the country in its impact on the field.
The Association of Neuroscience Departments and Programs (PH: 202-328-9713) maintains a website (http://www.andp.org/) that includes information about Neuroscience Training Programs in North America. A student interested in the field of Neurosciences should first examine this website and then make an appointment with Professors P. Stein (314 935-6824) and/or N. Suga (314 935-6805) to discuss his or her interest regarding a choice of graduate schools. Students also should examine the research interest website for the Neuroscience Program at Washington University (http://thalamus.wustl.edu/program/) when looking for research opportunities.
All life on earth depends on plants. Plant photosynthesis provides by far the dominant mechanism for capturing energy from outside the earth and converting it into the usable components of the biosphere. It is for this reason that plant biologists often say: "Plants are primary. Everything else is secondary and derivative." Studying plant biology allows the student and the professional biologist the opportunity to understand and investigate fundamental general life processes as well as processes unique to plants. Experimental plant biology is informed by the insights of evolution, driven by the mechanisms of chemistry and the techniques of biochemistry and molecular biology. The areas of the systematic relationships among plants, the dynamics of plant populations, diversity and plant ecology are other areas that command the detailed attention of biologists all over the world.
Students contemplating focusing on the study of plant biology will take the core science courses in common with all students completing a biology major. In your additional course work, the more you learn about chemistry, math and physics, the more areas of investigation will be open to you. The student who likes chemistry might consider a second semester of organic lab, synthetic organic chemistry, and physical chemistry. Take as much statistics as you enjoy. If you have a background in electronics, build on that. In addition to the courses that focus on plants (Bio 3041 Plant Biology and Genetic Engineering; Bio 3091 Plant Form and Function; Bio 4022 Plant Developmental Genetics, Genomics and Model Systems), no plant biologist should miss Cell Biology (Bio 334). Biochemistry (Bio 451) and Biochemistry of Plants (Bio 4021) are highly recommended and the laboratories in DNA Manipulation (Bio 437) and Protein Biochemistry (Bio 4522) would serve you well. Finally Bio 349 will introduce you to microbiology. For the student whose interests run more to natural history, plant systematics, ecology or population biology than to experimental plant biology, courses to consider include Ecology (Bio 419), Evolution (Bio 3501), Population Genetics (Bio 4181), Molecular Evolution (Bio 4183), and Conservation Biology (Bio 317A).
Students interested in a career in plant biology will want to take advantage of the opportunity to participate in research early in their undergraduate careers, perhaps the first or second semester of the sophomore year or earlier if you are exempt from some of your introductory science courses. Students are welcome not only in the research laboratories of members of the Plant Biology Group on the main campus but also at the Missouri Botanical Garden, one of the premier plant systematics institutions in the world. Students interested in field biology should pay special attention to summer courses and research at biological field stations; announcements of such opportunities are kept in the Natural Science Learning Center